Was Claudius an effective Roman Emperor

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Statue of Claudius

One of the most unusual Emperors in Roman history was Claudius (10-54 AD). Historians have divergent interpretations of Claudius, who ruled the Roman world for 13 years. While some view him as a buffoon and tragic-comic figure, others assert that he was a competent and effective Emperor. Who was Claudius? Claudius played an important role in the expansion, religious reforms and the administration of the Empire. He also introduced non-Italians into the Senate and fundamentally changed the character of the Roman elite.

Background

Rome in the first century AD was at the height of its powers. It controlled, either directly or indirectly much of Europe, large areas of the Middle East and tracts of North Africa. The Roman legions were the largest military force east of China and the Empire’s only real rival was the Parthian Empire. In, general the provinces were ably administered because the Empire devolved power to local elites. There was also a growing Romanization of the provinces. Rome was enjoying an uninterrupted period of peace, thanks to the achievements of Augustus, who established an Imperial system, with Republican trappings to appease the sensibilities of the senatorial elite, that provided stability to Rome and its provinces. The man usually regarded as the first Emperor also found the Julian-Claudian dynasty. Augustus had been able to hand over power to his step-son Tiberius who proved to be an able administrator if an autocratic ruler. However, under Tiberius, many members of the Julian-Claudian dynasty were either executed or exiled. After Tiberius died, he was succeeded by his grand-nephew, Gaius, better known as Caligula. He soon revealed himself to be unstable and he killed many members of the senatorial elite and continued the practice of Tiberius of killing or exiling his own relatives, to secure his person and power [1] Rome was a formidable power, but the position of the Emperor was often precarious and threatened by constant conspiracies by senators, generals and the machinations of their own bodyguards the Praetorian Guard.

The career of Claudius

A romanticized view of Claudius being appointed Emperor by the Praetorian Guards

Claudius was born in 10 BC in Gaul, to Drusus and his wife Antonia, his grandfather was Mark Anthony and his grandmother was Augustus influential third wife. Therefore, he was a member of the Julian-Claudian dynasty. His father, the older brother of Tiberius, died in Germany. As Claudius grew it became clear that he had some form of disability, which angered his mother Antonia and she passed him to his grandmother Livia [2]. It appears that he was slightly deaf, had a limp and had some developmental deficits. It has been speculated that he suffered from Cerebral Palsy or Tourette’s Syndrome. Claudius condition improved somewhat in his teenage years and he proved to be a capable scholar [3]. The great Roman historian Livy was appointed his tutor and Claudius was to prove a capable historian, who later wrote many histories which are now sadly lost. His intellectual abilities did not lead him to become a public figure despite being a member of the Imperial family. However, his disabilities probably saved him execution and exile like so many other members of his family during Tiberius’ reign. However, the accession of Caligula meant that Claudius was thrust into public life as a consul. However, Caligula had contempt for Claudius and he openly mocked and ridiculed him. The brutality and erratic behavior of Caligula led to his assassination by the Praetorian Guard. After they had killed the Emperor they did not know how to proceed and in desperation, they appointed Claudius as the successor of Caligula, as he was one of the last living members of the Julian-Claudian dynasty. Suetonius called his assumption of the Imperial dignity ‘ a freak of fortune’ [4]. Claudius pardoned all the killers of his predecessor and secured the grudging support of the Senate, who appeared to have been cowed by the Praetorian Guard. To the surprise of many, he proved to be an energetic ruler and was not the puppet of the Imperial guard. In 44 AD he ordered the invasion of Britain and he personally visited the battlefront. He was also very interested in the administration of the Empire and he made some important changes to the bureaucracy and even his detractors noted that his administration was efficient. Claudius was a great builder and he was especially concerned with the food supply of Rome and Italy. He rebuilt the port of Ostia, vital for food imports and began to drain the Fucine lake, to increase arable land in central Italy but it was only a partial success. Claudius was a complex man who despite his intellectual labors, loves gambling and the games and under his reign, the games became more lavish and spectacular. Claudius was the subject of several plots which led to the execution of several senators, despite his wish to be on good terms with the senatorial class. Claudius married his first cousin Valeria Messalina but she proved unfaithful, according to the ancient sources and even bigamously married one of her many lovers. The couple conspired against Claudius and he had them executed. He later married his niece Agrippina the Younger [5]. It is widely believed that she had an enormous influence over Claudius and even persuaded him to appoint her son Nero, to the position of co-Emperor with his son, Britannicus. It is widely believed that Agrippina the Younger had Claudius poisoned. He was succeeded by his step-son Nero who later probably murdered his son Britannicus, according to Tacitus [6].

Expansion of the Empire

Despite his disabilities and his scholarly pursuits, Claudius was an aggressive Emperor. He did not heed Augustus advice not to expand the Empire and if possible to rule through client kings. Claudius clearly had a idea that the Empire should be highly centralised and that direct rule was the best option. This means that he launched a campaign to annex client kingdoms[7]. In his reign her fully incorporated Mauretania, Judea, Noricum and Thrace into the Empire. This may have been motivated by the fact that these areas such as Thrace had become unstable and possibly could become a threat to stability. Claudius deposed many client-kings and imposed direct rule. This was sometimes achieved peacefully as in Judea but at other times military intervention was needed. This was the case in Thrace. In Mauretania, (northern Algeria and Morocco), the Romans had to fight a series of campaigns to conquer that kingdom [8]. The absorption of these areas ultimately led them to become Romanized and they greatly helped to strengthen the Empire’s frontiers. Claudius most ambitious campaign was the invasion of Britannia (modern England and Wales). It has been speculated that Claudius ordered the invasion in order to legitimize his rule. However, Britain was considered to be a wealthy land and it was believed that it was also providing safe refuge for Gallic rebels [9]. Claudius was no doubt also motivated by the desire for personal glory which was very important in Ancient Rome. Perhaps the greatest achievement of Claudius was the annexation of Britannia, which became a Roman colony for almost 400 years. The British provinces, ultimately helped to strengthen the Empire, in the longer term, its mineral wealth greatly enriched Rome and it also provided many legionnaires for the Imperial army[10]. Unlike the later conquests of Trajan, the territories secured by Claudius made the Empire more cohesive and ultimately stronger.

Claudius as a reformer

A statue of Agrippina the younger and her son Nero

Emperor Claudius was not content to simply accept the administration and the government that he inherited. After the misrule of Caligula, the government had been neglected and become corrupt and inefficient. The Emperor decided that the government and the bureaucracy needed to be overhauled. However, he was faced with a problem, the persistent hostility of the Senate meant that he could not appoint members of the traditional elite to the government [11]. Claudius appointed freedmen to the bureaucracy and Imperial government. These were freed slaves and they often proved to be highly competent, if not always honest administrators, even though their appointment brought stinging criticism from the Senatorial elite. Claudius reformed the traditional secretariat and established different bureaus that were responsible for aspects of the government; there were bureaus for finance, correspondence and military affairs [12]. These bureaus allowed the Emperor to receive information and to issue edicts and directives. This system was also much more centralized than anything previous and more effective. Claudius despite his often-bizarre behaviour was generally hard-working. He personally oversaw many court cases, but he was an erratic judge and his interference in legal matters was not always welcome.

Claudius and religious reform

As Emperor, Claudius held the position of Pontifex Maximus and had a very important role in Roman state Religion. He was concerned with the growing influence of eastern religions in the capital of the Empire and he expelled astrologers and tried to reinvigorate the ancient Roman practice of soothsaying. In many ways he saw himself as continuing Augustus efforts to restore the old Roman religion [13]. Claudius forbade any conversions or proselytizing but he did allow freedom of worship in most cases. He actively suppressed druidism, the ancient religion of the Celts because of the druids role in resisting Roman rule in Britannia and Gaul. Claudius apparently had an ambivalent relationship with the Jews, he recognized their rights’, but he also expelled them from Rome, according to some sources [14]. In general, Claudius attempted to ensure that religion was a unifying force in the Empire and he was intolerant of any faith that threatened public order.

Claudius and the Senate

Claudius attempted to foster a good relationship with the Senate. He may have sought the support of that body in the early years of his reign. However, it seems that many in the elite had become disillusioned with the Imperial system and even wanted a return to some form of Republican government [15]. There were many plots and attempts to foster rebellions during the reign of Claudius. According to Suetonius, the Emperor had some 35 Senators executed for treason during his reign [16]. This possibly led to Claudius to favor freedmen, rather than Senators when it came to his government. The Emperor used his position as Censor to purge the rolls of the Senate in an effort ostensibly to reform that body, but also no doubt to place those loyal to him in the assembly. One of the most significant reforms of Claudius was his insistence on admitting non-Italians into the Senate. He had several Gaul’s admitted to the senatorial rolls. According to Tacitus he firmly believed that a pluralist and multicultural Senate was essential for the future of Rome. He believed that Rome had to admit those outsiders who were loyal to stay vital and strong. According to Tacitus, he believed that the reason why Sparta and Athens fell was that they would not admit immigrants and outsiders to a share of power and allowing provincials to become senators would safeguard the Empire[17]. Claudius prevailed and during and after his reign non-Italians became Senators. His policy, further integrated provincial elites into the Roman system but also over time, which as he predicted greatly benefitted the Empire.

Conclusion

Claudius was in many ways a strange Emperor. He was an unusual character and probably had some disability, moreover, his private life was dysfunctional. However, he made a major contribution to the peace, stability and the prosperity of the Roman Empire. He expanded the Empire and strengthened the frontiers and the provinces that he annexed would eventually provide Rome with soldiers, taxes and natural resources. Claudius did much to centralize power in Rome and this is evident in his administrative reforms and he also helped to create a more professional and effective Imperial government. His religious reforms sought to preserve Roman traditions and were similar to those initiated by Augustus. However, Claudius was also an innovator and he opened up the Senate to non-Italians and this was very important in securing the loyalty of provincials’ elites and helped to unify the Empire. Overall, Claudius was an effective Emperor.

Recommended Reading

McAlindon, Denis. "Senatorial opposition to Claudius and Nero." The American Journal of Philology 77, no. 2 (1956): 113-132.

Standing, Giles. "The Claudian invasion of Britain and the cult of Victoria Britannica." Britannia 34 (2003): 281-288.

Huzar, Eleanor G. Claudius: The Erudite Emperor (London, Routledge, 1984).

Ehrhardt, C. "Messalina and the Succession to Claudius." Antichthon 12 (1978): 51-77.

References

  1. ↑ Tom Holland. Dynasty: the rise and fall of the House of Caesar (London, Abacus, 2016), p 113
  2. ↑ Lewick, Barbara Claudius (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1990), p 11
  3. ↑ Tacitus, Annals of Imperial Rome, book vi, 34
  4. ↑ Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 17
  5. ↑ Tacitus, book vii, 45
  6. ↑ Tacitus, book vii, 15
  7. ↑ Levick, p119
  8. ↑ Cassius Dio, History of Rome, LX, 18
  9. ↑ Suetonius, 38
  10. ↑ Levick, p 189
  11. ↑ Osgood, Josiah, Claudius Caesar : image and power in the early Roman Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p 78
  12. ↑ Osgood, p 145
  13. ↑ Osgood, p. 178
  14. ↑ Osgood, p 167
  15. ↑ Osgood, p 101
  16. ↑ Suetonius, Life of Claudius, 29
  17. ↑ Tacitus, vi, 17

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