Changes

[[File:AmINotAMan.jpg|left| thumbnail|250px|Am I Not a Man and a Brother? (1837)]]__NOTOC__

The movement toward the abolition of the system of enslavement has been remembered as one of the great humanitarian initiatives in modern history. Occurring as it did in a world that was rent by the slaveholding republics and empires of America and Western Europe, abolition was in some ways “anti-modern” in that in it sprung from those intellectuals and moralists who denied that progress benefits us all if it comes at a human cost. Therein lies the paradox. How could a system so responsible for the modern world’s economic progress, like enslavement, be ended by those who enjoyed its benefits?

There are a few factors to consider here. There first is a moral claim. If we are to take the theorists of natural rights at their word, then it was clearly immoral to reduce human beings to chattel. Much of this claim was buttressed by an incipient radical Christianity that emerged within dissident factions of the Protestant movement. Out of those movements came many of the first abolitionist organizations in history. The second factor has to do with political economy. Slaveholding republics like the United States and slaveholding empires like those of Great Britain, France, and Spain, among others, faced a dynamic economic situation at the beginning of the nineteenth century. The economics of slavery—primitive accumulation—had begun to give way to what were the beginnings of an industrialized economy. While this did not occur in the same way or at the same time across the landscape of the modern world—not just the Atlantic world—it is important to emphasize that things were moving to a critical juncture as the costs borne by maintaining systems of enslavement were not bearing the same economic fruit. A third factor is the threat of violence. Enslaved Africans resisted their enslavement. As a result of that resistance, slaveholding empires fought costly wars to maintain control of these economies. This proved to be unsustainable in the long run, compromising the efficacy of a centuries-old system. Historians have offered differing versions of each of these three factors and continue to debate which of them was most consequential to the ultimate undoing of slavery. Here, we will take them up in turn.

'''The Moral Argument'''economics of slavery—primitive accumulation—had begun to give way to what were the beginnings of an industrialized economy. While this did not occur in the same way or at the same time across the landscape of the modern world—not just the Atlantic world—it is important to emphasize that things were moving to a critical juncture as the costs borne by maintaining systems of enslavement were not bearing the same economic fruit. A third factor is the threat of violence. Enslaved Africans resisted their enslavement. As a result of that resistance, slaveholding empires fought costly wars to maintain control of these economies. This proved to be unsustainable in the long run, compromising the efficacy of a centuries-old system. Historians have offered different versions of each of these three factors and continue to debate which of them was most consequential to the ultimate undoing of slavery. Here, we will take them up in turn.

The evolution of the moral argument dates back to the long conversation around the question of human nature. What Sylvia Wynter and others frame as the “genre of the human” provides a roadmap to the nature of the conceptual arguments advanced by Western philosophers. Clearly, who gets constituted as a human determines who is offered the protections offered by a social contract that confers rights upon those humans that belong to a particular society. The foundations of enslavement, then, are based upon the denial of the humanity of those that are enslaved. Importantly, this precedes the enslavement of Africans, but it is also true that it was already racialized, if we take the arguments of Cedric Robinson to heart.The basic assumptions of those articulating moral rationales for ending enslavement in the nineteenth century had to revolve around claims of the humanity of those enslaved. Using a variety of Biblical readings, abolitionists in England, for example built an argument that enslaved people shared the basic humanity as those of English descent. The famous image that galvanized the movement there was Josiah Wedgewood’s image of an enslaved African declaring, “Am I Not and a Brother”? It served as the emblem of the Society for the Abolition of Slavery in England. It was the work of these abolitionists, which included figures like Granville Sharp and William Wilberforce, that prepared the ground for challenges such as the one taken up in the famous Somerset case, which abolished slavery in England. Another factor in England that rankled its moral fibers were the horrors of the Middle Passage exposed by figures like Thomas Clarkson. Along with Wedgewood’s image, the famous rendering of the Brookes contributed directly to Britain’s abolition of the slave trade in 1807.

In the United States, the Quakers were the critical voice on the question The foundations of abolition. Influenced by Anthony Benezetenslavement, their argument was that slavery contradicted Christianity. Though predated by earlier organizationsthen, are based upon the founding denial of the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 was the signal moment in modern American abolitionismhumanity of those that are enslaved. Founded by longtime activist William Lloyd GarrisonImportantly, this precedes the American Anti-Slavery society advanced both moral and political claims in their opposition to enslavement. Their arguments spoke to the immorality and brutality of the slave states as well as to the need to elevate enslaved Africans from their degradation. Garrison famously employed and supported freed Africans like Frederick Douglass to advance these arguments. Perhaps most critically, the abolitionists in America strenuously debated the notion of whether or not the United States constitution was a pro-slavery document. In an important period where enslavement was growing precipitously in the South and where much of the political momentum swung towards expanding but it, their readings of the Constitution helped abolitionists advance a range of arguments that challenged the very foundations of the American social order. Yet, their tactics remained in the realm of moral suasion. It is important to note, here, also true that at around the same time of the birth of it was already racialized if we take the American Anti-Slavery Society, a cadre of Black abolitionists made their mark. Manisha Sinha labels them an extension of the Black radical tradition. Figures like David Walker, Martin Delany, and Henry Highland Garnet opposed slavery but they did not always hew to the moralist arguments of the white abolitionists. Vincent Harding asserts that while they debated the merits of the constitution, of emigration, and rebellion, they began Cedric Robinson to see the question less as a concern of the future of America and more of an identification with the prospects of Black freedom—regardless of what happens in and to America. They built an alternative convention movement that raised these concerns and supported various initiatives that were the harbingers of Pan Africanism and Black Nationalismheart.

[[File:Slaveshipposter.jpg|thumbnail|Stowage The basic assumptions of those articulating moral rationales for ending enslavement in the British slave ship Brookes under nineteenth century had to revolve around claims of the regulated slave trade act humanity of those enslaved. Using a variety of 1788]]'''The Question Biblical readings, abolitionists in England, for example, built an argument that enslaved people shared the basic humanity as those of Political Economy'''English descent.

One does not need to be a historical materialist to recognize the ways The famous image that economics shapes decision-making. Such was especially the case in galvanized the modern world. The argument advanced by many movement there was that Josiah Wedgewood’s image of an enslaved African declaring, “Am I Not and a Brother”? It served as the Age emblem of Europe created rationales the Society for exploration that were lodged in the acquisition Abolition of land and thus of wealthSlavery in England. The enslavement of Africans It was part the work of this matrix these abolitionists, which included figures like Granville Sharp and it is crucial to make those connections. While moral arguments about abolition were critical, it is unlikely, as Eric Williams arguedWilliam Wilberforce, that enslavement would have been abolished without prepared the shift in ground for challenges such as the industrial and imperial ambitions of one of taken up in the major powers: Great Britainfamous Somerset case, which abolished slavery in England. Enslavement’s hegemomy was challenged by declining rates of profits as well as new explorations to the Pacific Another factor in England that would lead to rankled its moral fibers were the colonization of large swaths horrors of the globeMiddle Passage exposed by figures like Thomas Clarkson. HereAlong with Wedgewood’s image, African enslavement was replaced by a form of exploitative labor, and together they provided the basis for the industrial revolution famous rendering of the 1800s and the emergence Brookes contributed directly to Britain’s abolition of the factory. The erosion of the soil of the sugar plantations in the Caribbean was the leading cause of this strategic shift. The “opening” of new lands to exploit slave trade in the East, however cannot be overlooked as critical. All in all, it meant that capital was willing to concede the moral argument as it ultimately did not have an adverse effect on already declining bottom lines1807.

Things were slightly different, however, == What role did the Quakers play in the Abolitionist Movement?==In the United States, the Quakers were the critical voice on the question of abolition. Influenced by Anthony Benezet, they argued that slavery contradicted Christianity. With Though predated by earlier organizations, the advent founding of King Cotton the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833 was the nineteenth centurysignal moment in modern American abolitionism. Founded by longtime activist William Lloyd Garrison, the American level of productivity Anti-Slavery society advanced both moral and profit increased, leading directly political claims in their opposition to enslavement. Their arguments spoke to the sectional conflict that would result in the Civil War. The dispute was economic immorality and was based on brutality of the questions of efficiency and commercial relationships with slave states as well as to the larger world. Many abolitionists joined those who believed that wage labor was a more efficient form of accumulationneed to elevate enslaved Africans from their degradation.

'''The Threat Garrison famously employed and supported freed Africans like Frederick Douglass to advance these arguments. Perhaps most critically, the abolitionists in America strenuously debated the notion of Violence'''whether or not the United States Constitution was a pro-slavery document. In a critical period where enslavement was growing precipitously in the South and where much of the political momentum swung towards expanding it, their readings of the Constitution helped abolitionists advance a range of arguments that challenged the very foundations of the American social order. Their tactics remained in the realm of moral suasion.

There were numerous uprisings == What was the importance of Black Abolitionists? ==It is important to note, here, that at around the enslaved in same time as the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries across the landscape birth of the New World. Enslaved Africans never accepted the fact American Anti-Slavery Society, a cadre of Black abolitionists made their enslavementmark. Neither did they accept Manisha Sinha labels them an extension of the fact that they were chattelBlack radical tradition. The maintenance of the slave economies that produced the riceFigures like David Walker, sugar, coffee, tobaccoMartin Delany, and cotton so necessary to Western Europe, then was a violent affair. Much of the violence was exerted upon the enslavedHenry Highland Garnet opposed slavery, but they did not all of it. Gerald Horne argues that always hew to the founding moralist arguments of the United States had much to do with the untenable situation white abolitionists. Vincent Harding asserts that had emerged for enslavers in the British Caribbean, which was rent by revolt. They found solace on the mainland and eventually while they revolted against British rule, themselves. Their revolt, according to Horne, however was about their fears that debated the moral argument against enslavement would be victorious. Thus, in some ways, and quite ironically, many who contributed to the founding merits of the United Statesconstitution, were only there because of the revolutionary resistance of the enslaved. The same could be said about the expansion of the United Statesemigration, and rebellion.

One of They began to see the largest single expansions came in 1803 with the Louisiana Purchase, the unloading of question less as a large swath concern of the French Empire. This liquidation came in the face future of the defeat America and more of an identification with the French by what would be come the first Black republic: Haiti. Haiti was prospects of course, a symbol for those Black abolitionists who saw it as both proof freedom—regardless of the capacity for Black self-government and a beacon for how enslaved Africans what happens in the United States might resist. Enslavers, however, saw it as a warning. Haiti actively supported and encouraged rebellion beyond its borders, inspiring the anti-slavery efforts of Simon Bolivar among others. Haiti was thus a threat to both the British Empire and the United States, which did not recognize its existence until the American Civil WarAmerica. It obviously also caused turmoil in France, which had undergone its own revolution, but famously could not conceive of the enslaved as revolutionaries as well. The abolitionist They built an alternative convention movement in France, that raised these concerns and supported various initiatives that were the Amis des Noirs, placed pressure upon the French revolutionaries to extend the “rights of man” to mixed race citizens harbingers of Saint Domingue, but it was inconsistent Pan Africanism and uneven. By 1804, the founding of Haiti would write Black citizenship into the very meaning of the term, “citizenNationalism.”

The United States responded to the threat of violence by exerting greater control over the enslaved population. Nat Turner’s rebellion was one of many that roused == How did technological changes make slavery more economically beneficial in the fear of violence. Rebellions in Virginia and South Carolina, led to the abolition of private meetings of the enslaved and the prohibition of reading, writing, and preaching? ==[[File:Cotton_gin_harpers. There were other conflicts—both violent and political—in jpg|thumbnail|left|250px|Slaves using the tumultuous two decades after Turner’s rebellion that led directly to abolitionist and quasifirst cotton gin -abolitionist political parties. One of them, the Republican Party, would elect Abraham Lincoln to office, a year after John Brown and other abolitionists had decided that electoral means would not suffice. They were proven right.Drawn by William Sheppard in 1869]]

<div class="portal" style="width:85%;"> ====Related DailyHistory.org Articles====*[[Thomas Jefferson, the Founding Fathers and Christianity: Interview with Sam Haselby]]*[[American Revolution Top Ten Booklist]]*[[The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Interview with Terri Halperin]]*[[Hodges'Scout: Interview with Len Travers]]*[[Why did African Americans join the British Army during the American Revolution?]]</div> =====Bibliography=====Harding, Vincent. ''Bibliography'There is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America.''Orlando: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1981.

HardingRobinson, VincentCedric. There is a River''Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Struggle for Freedom in AmericaRadical Tradition''. OrlandoChapel Hill, NC: Harcourt Brace JovanovichUniversity of North Carolina Press, 19812000.

HorneSinha, GeraldManisha. The Counterreovlution of 1776: Slave Resistance the Origins of “Reviving the United StatesBlack Radical Tradition. New York” ''Race Capitalism Justice Forum 1 Boston Review'' (Boston, 2017): New York University Press, 201466-71.

RobinsonWilliams, CedricEric. Black Marxism: The Making of the Black Radical Tradition''Capitalism and Slavery''. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 20001944.

SinhaWynter, ManishaSylvia. “Reviving “Unsettling the Black Radical TraditionColoniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom: Towards the Human, After Man, It’s Overrepresentration—An Argument.” Race Capitalism Justice Forum 1 Boston ''CR: The New Centennial Review '' 3 (Boston, 2017Fall 2003): 66257-71337.

WilliamsUpdated January 17, Eric. Capitalism and Slavery. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1944.2019

Wynter, Sylvia. “Unsettling the Coloniality of Being/Power/Truth/Freedom[[Category: Towards the Human, After Man, It’s Overrepresentration—An Argument.” CRWikis]][[Category: The New Centennial Review 3 (Fall 2003)United States History]] [[Category: 257-337.Military History]][[Category:American Revolution]] [[Category: African American History]]{{contributors}}