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The Black Death was a wide pandemic event that occurred from 1346–1353 in the Old World, affecting primarily Asia and Europe. It is estimated to have killed more than 30% of Europe's population, while also having a devastating impact on Asian cultures. It is one of the most devastating pandemics in human history and fundamentally changed the course of human events due to the high death rates in many countries and regions. It also remained in societies, reoccurring frequently between the 14-20th centuries in different regions, as the plague never completely died. The effects of the Black Death are still felt today, as places had to evolve to much lower populations.

Prior to the Black Death, Europe had been facing a social and economic recovery. The population was growing rapidly, having gone from 38 to 74 million people in about 300 years. Learning and economies were beginning to thrive, with the diminished threat of Viking and other raids making commerce active across the continent. In Asia, the Mongols had invaded but trade was beginning to thrive under the <i>Pax-Mongolica</i>. This revived caravan routes and economies from China to the Near East, where the khanates, or Mongol successor states, thrived.<ref>For more on the pre-Black Death World, see: Campbell, Bruce M. S., ed. n.d. <i>Before the Black Death: Studies in the Crisis of the Early Fourteenth Century.</i> Reprinted in paperback.</ref> In effect, the Old World was becoming more integrated as it had recovered and began to thrive to the changes initiated by the Mongol invasions. Connections again spanned the whole Old World and the Silk Road achieve a peak level of trade activity. Populations were increasing in many parts of the Old World.

The Black Death had substantially different impact on populations and exacerbated social change in many regions. In Western Europe, where populations were generally higher prior to the Black Death, the reduction of population made the remaining peasants and workers better able to negotiate higher wages (Figure 1). Revolts and rebellions occurred after the plague, but it uliatemly helped lead to major social changes. It also led to the death of some of the nobility. Law changes to inheritance, allowing women in particular to inherit, led to gradual gender changes and increasing power for women in Europe in particular. Greater power to serfs as their wages went up also helped, in the long-term, to finally finish serfdom in Western Europe. In the immediate sense, serfs and nobility often fought in the years after the Black Death, but the lack of productivity in farms did help to give more powers to peasants in Western Europe. In effect, the Black Death helped to liberate societies that helped to set the stage for the Renaissance revival that occurred in Europe in the century after the Black Death.<ref>For more on Western Europe after the Black Death, see: Herlihy, David, and Samuel Kline Cohn. 1997. <i>The Black Death and the Transformation of the West.</i> Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.</ref>

The Black Death also caused many changes to society, including people challenging religious authorities. This could have led to the beginning of questioning of the Catholic Church that help lead to the reformation in the 16th century (Figure 2). Key social changes included an increased understanding of quarantine and its importance in medicine. This now began to be a common practice after the rise of the Black Death plague. Genetic diversity may have also diminished in parts of Asia and Europe, where it could have helped surviving populations develop better immunity (through genetic adaptation).<ref>For more on population changes after the Black Death, see: Meneely, Philip. 2017. Genetics: Genes, Genomes, and Evolution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press., pg. 172.</ref>

Politically, the collapse of the great Mongol Empire and states is the most obvious result. Other states, such as the Byzantine Empire, could have been weakened and ultimately collapsed due to the Black Death. Thus, one possibility is that the Mongol states could have continued to rule longer, perhaps allowing them to retain great power in many regions. Politically, this could have shaped Russia and China, in particular, differently, where Mongol rulers could have ruled longer and may have more significantly changed the political and social order in those societies. In the Middle East, the presence of the Mongol states and Byzantine Empire could have resulted in making it harder for Turkic groups to migrate and establish power in the region. The Ottoman Empire may have been one of the beneficiaries of the Black Death, which could have meant that they may have not been as significant in Middle East affairs otherwise. This could have also meant that wide areas of Anatolia may have remained Christian for centuries later at least if not until today.<ref>For more on the weakening of the Byzantines and rise of the Ottomans, see: Ayalon, Yaron. 2014. Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire: Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, pg. 48.</ref>

In Europe, serfdom may have continued in Western Europe for longer periods, limiting the eventual development of political revolutions that occurred centuries later. The Renaissance may have begun later than it otherwise may have if the Black Death did not occur. The gradual increasing individual rights in Western Europe helped to ultimately create the democratic processes in Western states today. In effect, it is possible this could have been delayed if the Black Death did not occur. While in Eastern Europe, including Russia, serfdom became well entrenched and lasted until the 19th century. It is possible population growth could have led to more rapid changes to the serfdom institution, leading to its earlier downfall than it otherwise may have been. Eastern European states, where individual liberties evolved more slowly, could have developed differently if the Black Death did not weaken the peasant population by so much.<ref>For serfdom in Russia, see: Dennison, T. K. 2014. <i>The Institutional Framework of Russian Serfdom.</i> Cambridge University Press. Cambridge.</ref>

The Black Death affected many societies of the Old World in the 14th century, where it reoccurred in subsequent centuries as the disease never entirely went away. However, its effect was different in various regions, leading to some societies to benefit by gaining political and social freedom, while others collapse or populations became more controlled by ruling classes. The Black Death allowed the world to develop differently and ultimately change the course of history. Western Europe and the Ottomans gained increasing power as a result of the Black Death, which may have never happened otherwise. In Western Europe, individual liberties and its development may have been one byproduct as well.